1. The concept of food waste hierarchy: macro-level
The unprecedented scale of food waste in global food supply chains is attracting increasing attention due to its environmental, social and economic impacts. From a climate change perspective, the food sector is thought to be the cause of 22 per cent of the global warming potential in the EU.
In their study Papargyropoulou, Lozano, Steiberger, Wright & Ujang (1) construed the boundaries between food surplus and food waste, avoidable and unavoidable food waste, and between waste prevention and waste management. The authors suggest that the first step towards a more sustainable resolution of the growing food waste issue is to adopt a sustainable production and consumption approach and tackle food surplus and waste
throughout the global food supply chain. The authors examine the factors that give rise to food waste throughout the global food supply chain, and propose a framework (Figure 1) to identify and prioritize the most appropriate options for the prevention and management of food waste.
Figure 1: The food waste hierarchy as a framework for the management of food surplus and food waste
Source: Papargyropoulou et al. (2014).
The proposed framework (Figure 1) interprets and applies the waste hierarchy in the context of food waste. It considers the three dimensions of sustainability (environmental, economic, and social), offering a more holistic approach in addressing the food waste issue. Additionally, it considers the materiality and temporality of food. The food waste hierarchy posits that prevention, through minimization of food surplus and avoidable food waste, is the most attractive option. The second most attractive option involves the distribution of food surplus to groups affected by food poverty, followed by the option of converting food waste to animal feed.
The framework is based on the European Waste Hierarchy policy model (Figure 2). EU waste and environmental policy is effected through the European Waste Hierarchy (EWH). The EWH expresses principles of minimizing environmental harm from waste management and delineates five steps, of best to worst management options. The EWH implies significant consequences for waste management principles and practices in the future as waste should increasingly be sorted and circulated. Through principles articulated in industrial ecology the EWH aims to change the status of waste in relation to the design, production, and consumption of products.
Municipal solid waste is a central concern for environmental policy, and the socio-materiality of waste - the ways in which waste is socially defined and dealt with - is an important issue for sustainability. Applying the European Union’s waste policy through the European Waste Hierarchy (EWH) affects the socio-materiality of waste (2). The EWH ranks the desirability of different waste-management approaches according to their environmental impact. In addition to preventing the production of waste, the EWH aims to disassemble, circulate, and reintroduce as much material as possible into production processes. These aims shape paradoxical relationships between economy and society on the one hand, and environment and nature on the other, and open the way for a discussion of a politics of consumption through material management.
Figure 2: European Waste Hierarchy policy model
The EWH is normative since it ranks the desirability of practices. It is also dynamic as it allows for interpretations of what mix of waste-management options gives the best overall ecological, economic, and social benefits. The least preferred option is disposal of material, which in institutional terms means landfill. Next is material transformation, in the form of incineration of materials combined with recovery of the energy contents of the material for electricity and heat, followed by recycling and composting of materials. This last is more explicitly about transformations through disassembly, sorting, and circulation to allow materials to reenter industrial and biological production processes. The next step in the EWH is reuse of products. This promotes practices that circulate products between commodity and non-commodity phases in such a way that their functions can be repeatedly fulfilled. The most desirable option in the EWH is waste prevention - design, production, and consumption practices that do not result in the creation of waste. This includes design for recycling and reuse, eliminated spill in production, and consumer practices that encourage thrift such as repair, maintenance, and second-hand retail.
2. Alternative framework: micro-level
In developed nations, food waste generated in homes is a large contributor to the total amount of food waste. The behaviors and practices associated with this waste prevention (and waste generation) are complex for a number of reasons: food waste is the result of multiple, interacting activities and this leads to separation between the activity and their consequences.
These behaviors are usually performed for reasons unrelated to waste prevention and have both a marked habitual element and a pronounced emotional component. Furthermore, the prevention of food waste has less ‘visibility’ to other people (e.g. neighbors) than many other pro-environmental behaviors (e.g. recycling), and therefore social norms around ‘waste’ play a reduced role compared to more ‘visible’ activities.
Figure 3 presents a conceptual framework to understand prevention of food waste in the home (3). These insights into household behaviors have been used in the development of a successful public-engagement campaign in the U.K., which has been influential in the recent reduction in household food waste. In their study these insights are also discussed in light of commonly used behavioral models, highlighting that many of these models are not designed for multiple, complex behaviors. However, considering the subject of food waste through the ‘lenses’ of different academic disciplines has helped the development of the public engagement on this issue.
Figure 3: ‘Conceptual Framework’ to understand prevention of food waste in the home
Source: Quested et al. (2013).
Food plays a central role in our lives, not only providing fuel, nutrients and sustenance, nor merely being central to many of our social interactions, but also feeding into to our sense of identity. Against this backdrop, food is purchased, prepared, consumed and, in many cases, wasted. Figure 3 is a conceptual framework developed by WRAP that illustrates these interactions. It indicates that there are two main ways of reducing the amount of food wasted in homes: 1) by influencing people's actions and 2) by making changes to the food that is sold (for example, by extending its shelf life) and the way it is packaged and sold.
According to the authors there are many important characteristics of food waste reduction In addition there is a high level of complexity associated with the behaviors and practices relating to food waste in the home:
Multiple, interacting activities that can increase the likelihood or amount of food that is wasted;
A separation in time, location and conceptually between these activities, the waste that is generated as a result and the environmental impact;
A marked habitual element to these activities due to frequent repetition;
A strong interaction with the context in which these activities are undertaken, spanning shopping, food preparation and consumption and people's social life;
A noticeable (and possibly surprising) conceptual link between food waste and other food related issues such as nutrition and food safety;
Initially low awareness of the quantity and value of food being wasted.
3. Critique of waste hierarchy models in Europe (EWH)
The concept of the circular economy has gained increasing prominence in academic, practitioner and policy circles and is linked to greening economies and sustainable development. However, the idea is more often celebrated than critically interrogated. Analysis shows the concept circulates as an idea and ideal, exemplified by industrial symbiosis and extended product life. Yet, according to critics its actual enactment is limited and fragile. Instead, circular economies are achieved mostly through global recycling networks which are the primary means by which wastes are recovered as resources. European policies - European Waste Hierarchy model (EWH) included - eschew these circuits (4).
Resource recovery through global recycling networks is regarded as a dirty and illegal trade. In its place, EU circular economies attempt to transform wastes to resources within the boundaries of the EU. Critical researchers have highlighted through case studies of resource recovery in the UK the challenges that confront making circular economies within the EU, showing that these are borne of a conjuncture of politically created markets, material properties and morally defined materials circuits. According to them resource recovery in the EU is framed by moral economies, driven by discourses of ecological modernization, environmental justice and resource (in)security, the last of which connects to China’s resource-intensive development.
Appropriate waste management is recognised as an essential prerequisite for sustainable development. Historically, in urban contexts, public waste management focused on removing potentially harmful substances or materials away from human settlements. As the environmental, social and financial implications of unsustainable use of raw materials and growing waste generation in the short and long term became apparent waste management began to shift from a mere pollution prevention and control exercise, towards a more holistic approach.
In the evolving waste management field, a waste stream receiving growing attention is food waste. As the scale of food waste’s negative environmental, social and economic impacts are becoming more apparent, and global food security is becoming more pressing, food waste is increasingly recognised as being central to a more sustainable resolution of the global waste challenge.
In response to concerns over escalating GHG emissions and other environmental impacts associated with food waste, a growing number of national and regional policies identify food waste as a priority waste stream. Food security is an increasingly pressing global issue and it raises questions about the amount of food wasted in the global Food Supply Chain (FSC) that could have otherwise been used to feed people.
Food waste has substantial economic impact. The economic cost of global food wastage in 2007 was estimated at USD 750 billion. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) highlights the economic implications of food waste and encourages food producers, retails and the food service sector to reduce food waste in order to achieve substantial cost savings. These costs are not only linked to reduced purchasing costs, but also to the final waste disposal costs. UNEP places emphasis on the economic benefits of resource efficiency and waste reduction and suggests that minimization of resource use, waste and other emissions have the potential to yield cost savings, identify new business fields, and increase employment and competitiveness .
It is estimated that the food sector is the cause of approximately 22% of the global warming potential in the EU. Other environmental impacts of food waste include natural resources depletion (such as soil nutrients, water and energy), the disruption of the biogenic cycles of nitrogen and phosphorus used in agriculture as fertilizers, and the environmental pollution potential throughout the FSC but particularly during waste disposal.
In addition to environmental and economic impacts, food waste also has social implications. These tend to focus around the ethical and moral dimension of wasting food, in particular in relation to the inequality between on the one hand wasteful practices, and on the other food poverty. As the
issue of global food security is becoming increasingly important in local and global agendas, the reduction of food losses and waste throughout the FSC, as well as alternative diets, are considered as a first step towards achieving food security.
5. Company practices / Food waste in Finland
The composition of avoidable food waste in the Finnish food production-consumption chain is estimated (5):
Around 130 million kilograms of food waste is generated each year (23 kg per capita/year) from the household sector.
Annually discarded food from Finnish households is approximately equal to the annual carbon dioxide emissions of 100,000 cars.
At the national level Finnish households discard food of value €400–550 million annually.
Altogether, households, restaurants, food industry and retails produce 335–460 million kilograms of food waste in Finland per year.
The total climate impact of food waste was approximately 1000 million kilograms of CO2-equivalent per year.
The retail sector in Finland aims at maximizing sales and profits, yet it is not always possible to add waste reduction to this equation. Naturally, stores try to minimize their waste whenever possible to achieve cost efficiency. However, the retailers value more serving the customer and managing overall wastage. In recent years waste from Finnish retail stores has been decreasing, and electronic ordering and efficient logistics may continue to reduce the amount further. Increasing sales requires balancing consumer wishes against minimizing waste. Indeed, the reasons behind waste lie mainly in consumer behavior and store sales promotion, which includes, among other things, offering an extensive selection (6).
The interviewees were asked what measures could be taken to reduce food waste in retail stores. Products close to due date could be sold at discount more often, so that the consumers would buy products that would otherwise end up as waste. This practice could be implemented in most of the retail chains. However, the discount system is not viable if the store or retail chain business model is based on emphasizing quality and freshness. Donating still edible but unsold goods to the needy should be made easier, and food that has passed ’best before’ date should be used more efficiently, for example bakery products and vegetables as animal food. This would prevent food being wasted. Packaging and package size matters: a well-designed package made from an appropriate material preserves the food optimally, while protecting it during transportation. Correct package size helps the consumer buy a suitable amount of food for their household.
The interviewees saw that a good way of reducing waste would be to influence the attitudes of the consumers, making them more aware of the importance of the issue. The consumers could give shops feedback to let them know that they value reducing waste, and that they want to patronize business chains that take this matter seriously.
References:
1) Papargyropoulou, E., Lozano, R., Steinberger, J.K., Wright, N., bin Ujang, Z. (2014). The food waste hierarchy as a framework for the management of food surplus and food waste. Journal of Cleaner Production, volume 76, pages 106-115.
2) Hultman, J., Corvellec, H. (2012). The European Waste Hierarchy: from the sociomateriality of waste to a politics of consumption. Environment and Planning, volume 44, pages 2413 – 2427.
3) Quested, T.E., Marsh, E., Stunell, D., Parry, A.D. (2013). Spaghetti soup: The complex world of food waste behaviours. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, volume 79, pages 43-51.
4) Gregson, N., Crang, M., Fuller, S., Holmes H. (2015). Interrogating the Circular Economy: the Moral Economy of Resource Recovery in the EU.
Economy and society, Volume 44 (2). pages 218-243.
5) Katajajuuri, J.-M., Silvennoinen, K., Hartikainen, H., Heikkilä, L., Reinikainen, A. (2014). Food waste in the Finnish food chain. Journal of Cleaner Production, volume 73, pages 322–329.
6) Silvennoinen, K., Katajajuuri, J.-M., Hartikainen, H., Jalkanen, L., Koivupuro, H.K., Reinikainen, A. (2012). Food waste volume and composition in the Finnish supply chain: special focus on food service sector. Proceedings Venice 2012, Fourth International Symposium on Energy from Biomass and Waste Cini Foundation, Venice, Italy; 12 - 15 November 2012.
1. The concept of food waste hierarchy: macro-level
The unprecedented scale of food waste in global food supply chains is attracting increasing attention due to its environmental, social and economic impacts. From a climate change perspective, the food sector is thought to be the cause of 22 per cent of the global warming potential in the EU.
In their study Papargyropoulou, Lozano, Steiberger, Wright & Ujang (1) construed the boundaries between food surplus and food waste, avoidable and unavoidable food waste, and between waste prevention and waste management. The authors suggest that the first step towards a more sustainable resolution of the growing food waste issue is to adopt a sustainable production and consumption approach and tackle food surplus and waste
throughout the global food supply chain. The authors examine the factors that give rise to food waste throughout the global food supply chain, and propose a framework (Figure 1) to identify and prioritize the most appropriate options for the prevention and management of food waste.
Figure 1: The food waste hierarchy as a framework for the management of food surplus and food waste
Source: Papargyropoulou et al. (2014).
The proposed framework (Figure 1) interprets and applies the waste hierarchy in the context of food waste. It considers the three dimensions of sustainability (environmental, economic, and social), offering a more holistic approach in addressing the food waste issue. Additionally, it considers the materiality and temporality of food. The food waste hierarchy posits that prevention, through minimization of food surplus and avoidable food waste, is the most attractive option. The second most attractive option involves the distribution of food surplus to groups affected by food poverty, followed by the option of converting food waste to animal feed.
The framework is based on the European Waste Hierarchy policy model (Figure 2). EU waste and environmental policy is effected through the European Waste Hierarchy (EWH). The EWH expresses principles of minimizing environmental harm from waste management and delineates five steps, of best to worst management options. The EWH implies significant consequences for waste management principles and practices in the future as waste should increasingly be sorted and circulated. Through principles articulated in industrial ecology the EWH aims to change the status of waste in relation to the design, production, and consumption of products.
Municipal solid waste is a central concern for environmental policy, and the socio-materiality of waste - the ways in which waste is socially defined and dealt with - is an important issue for sustainability. Applying the European Union’s waste policy through the European Waste Hierarchy (EWH) affects the socio-materiality of waste (2). The EWH ranks the desirability of different waste-management approaches according to their environmental impact. In addition to preventing the production of waste, the EWH aims to disassemble, circulate, and reintroduce as much material as possible into production processes. These aims shape paradoxical relationships between economy and society on the one hand, and environment and nature on the other, and open the way for a discussion of a politics of consumption through material management.
Figure 2: European Waste Hierarchy policy model
The EWH is normative since it ranks the desirability of practices. It is also dynamic as it allows for interpretations of what mix of waste-management options gives the best overall ecological, economic, and social benefits. The least preferred option is disposal of material, which in institutional terms means landfill. Next is material transformation, in the form of incineration of materials combined with recovery of the energy contents of the material for electricity and heat, followed by recycling and composting of materials. This last is more explicitly about transformations through disassembly, sorting, and circulation to allow materials to reenter industrial and biological production processes. The next step in the EWH is reuse of products. This promotes practices that circulate products between commodity and non-commodity phases in such a way that their functions can be repeatedly fulfilled. The most desirable option in the EWH is waste prevention - design, production, and consumption practices that do not result in the creation of waste. This includes design for recycling and reuse, eliminated spill in production, and consumer practices that encourage thrift such as repair, maintenance, and second-hand retail.
2. Alternative framework: micro-level
In developed nations, food waste generated in homes is a large contributor to the total amount of food waste. The behaviors and practices associated with this waste prevention (and waste generation) are complex for a number of reasons: food waste is the result of multiple, interacting activities and this leads to separation between the activity and their consequences.
These behaviors are usually performed for reasons unrelated to waste prevention and have both a marked habitual element and a pronounced emotional component. Furthermore, the prevention of food waste has less ‘visibility’ to other people (e.g. neighbors) than many other pro-environmental behaviors (e.g. recycling), and therefore social norms around ‘waste’ play a reduced role compared to more ‘visible’ activities.
Figure 3 presents a conceptual framework to understand prevention of food waste in the home (3). These insights into household behaviors have been used in the development of a successful public-engagement campaign in the U.K., which has been influential in the recent reduction in household food waste. In their study these insights are also discussed in light of commonly used behavioral models, highlighting that many of these models are not designed for multiple, complex behaviors. However, considering the subject of food waste through the ‘lenses’ of different academic disciplines has helped the development of the public engagement on this issue.
Figure 3: ‘Conceptual Framework’ to understand prevention of food waste in the home
Source: Quested et al. (2013).
Food plays a central role in our lives, not only providing fuel, nutrients and sustenance, nor merely being central to many of our social interactions, but also feeding into to our sense of identity. Against this backdrop, food is purchased, prepared, consumed and, in many cases, wasted. Figure 3 is a conceptual framework developed by WRAP that illustrates these interactions. It indicates that there are two main ways of reducing the amount of food wasted in homes: 1) by influencing people's actions and 2) by making changes to the food that is sold (for example, by extending its shelf life) and the way it is packaged and sold.
According to the authors there are many important characteristics of food waste reduction In addition there is a high level of complexity associated with the behaviors and practices relating to food waste in the home:
3. Critique of waste hierarchy models in Europe (EWH)
The concept of the circular economy has gained increasing prominence in academic, practitioner and policy circles and is linked to greening economies and sustainable development. However, the idea is more often celebrated than critically interrogated. Analysis shows the concept circulates as an idea and ideal, exemplified by industrial symbiosis and extended product life. Yet, according to critics its actual enactment is limited and fragile. Instead, circular economies are achieved mostly through global recycling networks which are the primary means by which wastes are recovered as resources. European policies - European Waste Hierarchy model (EWH) included - eschew these circuits (4).
Resource recovery through global recycling networks is regarded as a dirty and illegal trade. In its place, EU circular economies attempt to transform wastes to resources within the boundaries of the EU. Critical researchers have highlighted through case studies of resource recovery in the UK the challenges that confront making circular economies within the EU, showing that these are borne of a conjuncture of politically created markets, material properties and morally defined materials circuits. According to them resource recovery in the EU is framed by moral economies, driven by discourses of ecological modernization, environmental justice and resource (in)security, the last of which connects to China’s resource-intensive development.
4. Food waste management: relation to SDGs
Appropriate waste management is recognised as an essential prerequisite for sustainable development. Historically, in urban contexts, public waste management focused on removing potentially harmful substances or materials away from human settlements. As the environmental, social and financial implications of unsustainable use of raw materials and growing waste generation in the short and long term became apparent waste management began to shift from a mere pollution prevention and control exercise, towards a more holistic approach.
In the evolving waste management field, a waste stream receiving growing attention is food waste. As the scale of food waste’s negative environmental, social and economic impacts are becoming more apparent, and global food security is becoming more pressing, food waste is increasingly recognised as being central to a more sustainable resolution of the global waste challenge.
In response to concerns over escalating GHG emissions and other environmental impacts associated with food waste, a growing number of national and regional policies identify food waste as a priority waste stream. Food security is an increasingly pressing global issue and it raises questions about the amount of food wasted in the global Food Supply Chain (FSC) that could have otherwise been used to feed people.
Food waste has substantial economic impact. The economic cost of global food wastage in 2007 was estimated at USD 750 billion. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) highlights the economic implications of food waste and encourages food producers, retails and the food service sector to reduce food waste in order to achieve substantial cost savings. These costs are not only linked to reduced purchasing costs, but also to the final waste disposal costs. UNEP places emphasis on the economic benefits of resource efficiency and waste reduction and suggests that minimization of resource use, waste and other emissions have the potential to yield cost savings, identify new business fields, and increase employment and competitiveness .
It is estimated that the food sector is the cause of approximately 22% of the global warming potential in the EU. Other environmental impacts of food waste include natural resources depletion (such as soil nutrients, water and energy), the disruption of the biogenic cycles of nitrogen and phosphorus used in agriculture as fertilizers, and the environmental pollution potential throughout the FSC but particularly during waste disposal.
In addition to environmental and economic impacts, food waste also has social implications. These tend to focus around the ethical and moral dimension of wasting food, in particular in relation to the inequality between on the one hand wasteful practices, and on the other food poverty. As the
issue of global food security is becoming increasingly important in local and global agendas, the reduction of food losses and waste throughout the FSC, as well as alternative diets, are considered as a first step towards achieving food security.
5. Company practices / Food waste in Finland
The composition of avoidable food waste in the Finnish food production-consumption chain is estimated (5):
The retail sector in Finland aims at maximizing sales and profits, yet it is not always possible to add waste reduction to this equation. Naturally, stores try to minimize their waste whenever possible to achieve cost efficiency. However, the retailers value more serving the customer and managing overall wastage. In recent years waste from Finnish retail stores has been decreasing, and electronic ordering and efficient logistics may continue to reduce the amount further. Increasing sales requires balancing consumer wishes against minimizing waste. Indeed, the reasons behind waste lie mainly in consumer behavior and store sales promotion, which includes, among other things, offering an extensive selection (6).
The interviewees were asked what measures could be taken to reduce food waste in retail stores. Products close to due date could be sold at discount more often, so that the consumers would buy products that would otherwise end up as waste. This practice could be implemented in most of the retail chains. However, the discount system is not viable if the store or retail chain business model is based on emphasizing quality and freshness. Donating still edible but unsold goods to the needy should be made easier, and food that has passed ’best before’ date should be used more efficiently, for example bakery products and vegetables as animal food. This would prevent food being wasted. Packaging and package size matters: a well-designed package made from an appropriate material preserves the food optimally, while protecting it during transportation. Correct package size helps the consumer buy a suitable amount of food for their household.
The interviewees saw that a good way of reducing waste would be to influence the attitudes of the consumers, making them more aware of the importance of the issue. The consumers could give shops feedback to let them know that they value reducing waste, and that they want to patronize business chains that take this matter seriously.
References:
1) Papargyropoulou, E., Lozano, R., Steinberger, J.K., Wright, N., bin Ujang, Z. (2014). The food waste hierarchy as a framework for the management of food surplus and food waste. Journal of Cleaner Production, volume 76, pages 106-115.
2) Hultman, J., Corvellec, H. (2012). The European Waste Hierarchy: from the sociomateriality of waste to a politics of consumption. Environment and Planning, volume 44, pages 2413 – 2427.
3) Quested, T.E., Marsh, E., Stunell, D., Parry, A.D. (2013). Spaghetti soup: The complex world of food waste behaviours. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, volume 79, pages 43-51.
4) Gregson, N., Crang, M., Fuller, S., Holmes H. (2015). Interrogating the Circular Economy: the Moral Economy of Resource Recovery in the EU.
Economy and society, Volume 44 (2). pages 218-243.
5) Katajajuuri, J.-M., Silvennoinen, K., Hartikainen, H., Heikkilä, L., Reinikainen, A. (2014). Food waste in the Finnish food chain. Journal of Cleaner Production, volume 73, pages 322–329.
6) Silvennoinen, K., Katajajuuri, J.-M., Hartikainen, H., Jalkanen, L., Koivupuro, H.K., Reinikainen, A. (2012). Food waste volume and composition in the Finnish supply chain: special focus on food service sector. Proceedings Venice 2012, Fourth International Symposium on Energy from Biomass and Waste Cini Foundation, Venice, Italy; 12 - 15 November 2012.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VxiuLSU9HUs